Issues in Sme Development in Ghana and South Africa free essay sample

International Research Journal of Finance and Economics ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 39 (2010)  © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010 http://www. eurojournals. com/finance. htm Issues in SME Development in Ghana and South Africa Joshua Abor Department of Finance University of Ghana Business School, Legon Peter Quartey Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research University of Ghana, Legon Abstract This paper discusses the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to economic development, and the constraints to SME development in developing countries with particular reference to Ghana and South Africa. SMEs in Ghana have been noted to provide about 85% of manufacturing employment of Ghana. They are also believed to contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana. In the Republic of South Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the formal business entities are SMEs. They also contribute between 52 to 57% to GDP and provide about 61% to employment. Notwithstanding the recognition of the important roles SMEs play in these countries, their development is largely constrained by a number of factors, such as lack of access to appropriate technology; limited access to international markets, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity, lack of management skills and training, and most importantly finance. We will write a custom essay sample on Issues in Sme Development in Ghana and South Africa or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The paper provides some relevant recommendations to policy makers, development agencies, entrepreneurs, and SME managers to ascertain the appropriate strategy to improve the SME sector in these countries. Keywords: SME Development, Ghana, South Africa 1. 0. Introduction There is growing recognition of the important role small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play in economic development. They are often described as efficient and prolific job creators, the seeds of big businesses and the fuel of national economic engines. Even in the developed industrial economies, it is the SME sector rather than the multinationals that is the largest employer of workers (Mullineux, 1997). Interest in the role of SMEs n the development process continues to be in the forefront of policy debates in most countries. Governments at all levels have undertaken initiatives to promote the growth of SMEs (Feeney and Riding, 1997). SME development can encourage the process of both inter and intra-regional decentralization; and, they may well become a countervailing force against the economic power of larger enterprises. More generally, the development of SMEs is seen as accelerating the achievement of wider economi c and socio-economic objectives, including poverty alleviation (Cook and Nixson, 2000). According to an OECD report, SMEs produce about 25% of OECD exports and 35% of Asia’s exports (OECD, 1997). International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) 219 SMEs represent over 90% of private business and contribute to more than 50% of employment and of GDP in most African countries (UNIDO, 1999). Small enterprises in Ghana are said to be a characteristic feature of the production landscape and have been noted to provide about 85% of manufacturing employment of Ghana (Steel and Webster, 1991; Aryeetey, 2001). SMEs are also believed to contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana. Similarly, in the Republic of South Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the formal business entities are Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises (SMMEs) (Hassbroeck, 1996; Berry et al. , 2002). They also contribute between 52 and 57% to GDP and provide about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998; Ntsika, 1999; Gumede, 2000; Berry et al. , 2002). SMEs therefore have a crucial role to play in stimulating growth, generating employment and contributing to poverty alleviation, given their economic weight in African countries. How do SMEs in Ghana compare with their counterparts in South Africa and what policy lessons can be drawn for both countries to enhance the contribution of the sector remains the focus of this paper. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section two reviews the various definitions of SMEs. Section three discusses the characteristics of SMEs in developing countries. Sections four and five examine the contributions of SMEs to economic development and the constraints to SME developments. The paper concludes in section six. 2. 0. What is an SME? The issue of what constitutes a small or medium enterprise is a major concern in the literature. Different authors have usually given different definitions to this category of business. SMEs have indeed not been spared with the definition problem that is usually associated with concepts which have many components. The definition of firms by size varies among researchers. Some attempt to use the capital assets while others use skill of labour and turnover level. Others define SMEs in terms of their legal status and method of production. Storey (1994) tries to sum up the danger of using size to define the status of a firm by stating that in some sectors all firms may be regarded as small, whilst in other sectors there are possibly no firms which are small. The Bolton Committee (1971) first formulated an â€Å"economic† and â€Å"statistical† definition of a small firm. Under the â€Å"economic† definition, a firm is said to be small if it meets the following three criteria: †¢ It has a relatively small share of their market place; †¢ It is managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; †¢ It is independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. Under the â€Å"statistical† definition, the Committee proposed the following criteria:: †¢ The size of the small firm sector and its contribution to GDP, employment, exports, etc. †¢ The extent to which the small firm sector’s economic contribution has changed over time; †¢ Applying the statistical definition in a cross-country comparison of the small firms’ economic contribution. The Bolton Committee applied different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. Whereas firms in manufacturing, construction and mining were defined in terms of number of employees (in which case, 200 or less qualified the firm to be a small firm), those in the retail, services, wholesale, etc. were defined in terms of monetary turnover (in which case the range is 50,000-200,000 British Pounds to be classified as small firm). Firms in the road transport industry are classified as small if they have 5 or fewer vehicles. There have been criticisms of the Bolton definitions. These centre mainly on the apparent inconsistencies between defining characteristics based on number of employees and those based on managerial approach. The European Commission (EC) defined SMEs largely in term of the number of employees as follows: †¢ firms with 0 to 9 employees micro enterprises; 220 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) †¢ 10 to 99 employees small enterprises; †¢ 100 to 499 employees medium enterprises. Thus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises (except agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing) which employ less than 500 workers. In effect, the EC definitions are based solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of 100 employees as the small firm’s upper limit is more appropriate, given the increase in productivity over the last two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME group is homogenous; that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises. However, the EC definition is too all-embracing to be applied to a number of countries. Researchers would have to use definitions for small firms which are more appropriate to their particular â€Å"target† group (an operational definition). It must be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile, unless size is a factor which influences performance. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the impact of a credit programme on a target group (Storey, 1994). Weston and Copeland (1998) hold that definitions of size of enterprises suffer from a lack of universal applicability. In their view, this is because enterprises may be conceived of in varying terms. Size has been defined in different contexts, in terms of the number of employees, annual turnover, industry of enterprise, ownership of enterprise, and value of fixed assets. Van der Wijst (1989) considers small and medium businesses as privately held firms with 1 – 9 and 10 – 99 people employed, respectively. Jordan et al (1998) define SMEs as firms with fewer than 100 employees and less than â‚ ¬15 million turnover. Michaelas et al (1999) consider small independent private limited companies with fewer than 200 employees and Lopez and Aybar (2000) considered companies with sales below â‚ ¬15 million as small. According to the British Department of Trade and Industry, the best description of a small firm remains that used by the Bolton Committee in its 1971 Report on Small Firms. This stated that a small firm is an independent business, managed by its owner or part-owners and having a small market share (Department of Trade and Industry, 2001). The UNIDO also defines SMEs in terms of number of employees by giving different classifications for industrialized and developing countries (see Elaian, 1996). The definition for industrialized countries is given as follows: †¢ Large firms with 500 or more workers; †¢ Medium firms with 100-499 workers; †¢ Small firms with 99 or less workers. The classification given for developing countries is as follows: †¢ Large firms with 100 or more workers; †¢ Medium firms with 20-99 workers; †¢ Small firms with 5-19 workers; †¢ Micro firms with less than 5 workers. It is clear from the various definitions that there is not a general consensus over what constitutes an SME. Definitions vary across industries and also across countries. It is important now to examine definitions of SMEs given in the context of Ghana and South Africa. 2. 1. The Ghanaian Situation There have been various definitions given for small-scale enterprises in Ghana but the most commonly used criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut off points used by the various official sources. In its Industrial Statistics, the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) considers firms with fewer than 10 employees as small-scale enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as medium and large-sized enterprises. Ironically, the GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as SMEs (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The value of fixed assets in the firm has also been used as an alternative criterion for defining SMEs. However, the National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both the International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) 221 â€Å"fixed asset and number of employees† criteria. It defines a small-scale enterprise as a firm with not more than 9 workers, and has plant and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not exceeding 10 million Ghanaian cedis. The Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC), on the other hand, uses a 10 million Ghanaian cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. It is important to caution that the process of valuing fixed assets poses a problem. Secondly, the continuous depreciation of the local currency as against major trading currencies often makes such definitions outdated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In defining small-scale enterprises in Ghana, Steel and Webster (1991), and Osei et al (1993) used an employment cut-off point of 30 employees. Osei et al (1993), however, classified small-scale enterprises into three categories. These are: (i) micro employing less than 6 people; (ii) very small employing 6-9 people; (iii) small between 10 and 29 employees. A more recent definition is the one given by the Regional Project on Enterprise Development Ghana manufacturing survey paper. The survey report classified firms into: (i) micro enterprise, less than 5 employees; (ii) small enterprise, 5 29 employees; (iii) medium enterprise, 30 – 99 employees; (iv) large enterprise, 100 and more employees (see Teal, 2002). 2. 2. The South African Situation The most widely used framework in South Africa is the definition of the National Small Business Act 102 of 1996, which defines five categories of businesses in South Africa. The definition uses the number of employees (the most common mode of definition) per enterprise size category combined with the annual turnover categories, the gross assets excluding fixed property. The definitions for the various enterprise categories are given as follows: †¢ Survivalist enterprise: The income generated is less than the minimum income standard or the poverty line. This category is considered pre-entrepreneurial, and includes hawkers, vendors and subsistence farmers. (In practice, survivalist enterprises are often categorised as part of the micro-enterprise sector). Micro enterprise: The turnover is less than the VAT registration limit (that is, R150 000 per year). These enterprises usually lack formality in terms of registration. They include, for example, spaza shops, minibus taxis and household industries. They employ no more than 5 people. †¢ Very small enterprise: These are enterprises employing fewer than 10 paid employees, except mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors, in which the figure is 20 employees. These enterprises operate in the formal market and have access to technology. Small enterprise: The upper limit is 50 employees. Small enterprises are generally more established than very small enterprises and exhibit more complex business practices. †¢ Medium enterprise: The maximum number of employees is 100, or 200 for the mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors. These enterprises are often characterised by the decentralisation of power to an additional management layer. The National Small Business Act’s definitions of the different categories of business may be summarised as set out in Table 1 below. 222 Table 1: International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) Definitions of SMMEs given in the National Small Business Act Number of Employees Fewer than 100 to 200, depending on industry Fewer than 50 Annual Turnover (in South African rand) Less than R4 million to R50 million, depending upon industry Less than R2 million to R25 million, depending on industry Less than R200 000 to R500 000, depending on industry Less than R150 000 Gross Assets, Excluding Fixed Property Less than R2 million to R18 million, depending on industry Less than R2 million to R4. million, depending on industry Less than R150 000 to R500 000, depending on Industry Less than R100 000 Enterprise Size Medium Small Fewer than 10 to 20, depending on industry Micro Fewer than 5 Source: Falkena et al. (2001) Very Small From the above, two key contrast can be drawn between the definitions of SMEs in Ghana and their counterparts in South Africa. First, Act 102 of 1996 defines SMEs in South Africa whereas th ere is no such legislation in Ghana. Secondly, the cut off points for the various SME size categories in South Africa are much higher than that of Ghana. This may be a result of the fact that South Africa has a much higher income levels than Ghana. 3. 0. Characteristics of SMEs in Developing Countries Fisher and Reuber (2000) enumerate a number of characteristics of SMEs in developing countries under the broad headings: labour characteristics, sectors of activity, gender of owner and efficiency. Given that most SMEs are one-person businesses, the largest employment category is working proprietors. This group makes up more than half the SME workforce in most developing countries; their families, who tend to be unpaid but active in the enterprise, make up roughly another quarter. The remaining portion of the workforce is split between hired workers and trainees or apprentices. SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Liedholm and Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). In terms of activity, they are mostly engaged in retailing, trading, or manufacturing (Fisher and Reuber, 2000). While it is a common perception that the majority of SMEs will fall into the first category, the proportion of SME activity that takes place in the retail sector varies considerably between countries, and between rural and urban regions within countries. Retailing is mostly found in urban regions, while manufacturing can be found in either rural or urban centres. However, the extent of involvement of a country in manufacturing will depend on a number of factors, including, availability of raw materials, taste and consumption patterns of domestic consumers, and the level of development of the export markets. In Ghana, SMEs can be categorized into urban and rural enterprises. The former can be subdivided into â€Å"organized† and â€Å"unorganized† enterprises. The organized ones mostly have paid employees with a registered office, whereas the unorganized category is mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home, and employ few or in some cases no salaried workers (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups, individual artisans, women engaged in food production from local crops. The major activities within this sector include:- soap and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, textile and leather, village blacksmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, bricks and cement, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical-based products and mechanics (Osei et al. , 1993; Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Majority of SMEs are female-owned businesses, which more often than not are home-based compared to those owned by males; they are operated from home and are mostly not considered in official statistics. This clearly affects their chances of gaining access to financing schemes, since such International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) 223 programmes are designed without sufficient consideration of the needs of businesses owned by females. These female entrepreneurs often get the impression that they are not capable of taking advantage of these credit schemes, because the administrative costs associated with the schemes often outweigh the benefits. Prior empirical studies in Ghana have shown that female-owned SMEs often have difficulty accessing finance. Females are mostly involved in sole-proprietorship businesses which are mainly microenterprises and as such may lack the necessary collateral to qualify for loans (Aryeetey et al, 1994; Abor and Biekpe, 2006). Measures of enterprise efficiency (e. g. labour productivity or total factor productivity) vary greatly both within and across industries. Firm size may be associated with some other factors that are correlated with efficiency, such as managerial skill and technology, and the effects of the policy environment. Most studies in developing countries indicate that the smallest firms are the least efficient, and there is some evidence that both small and large firms are relatively inefficient compared to medium-scale enterprises (Little et al. , 1987). It is often argued that SMEs are more innovative than larger firms. Many small firms bring innovations to the market place, but the contribution of innovations to productivity often takes time, and larger firms may have more resources to adopt and implement them (Acs et al. , 1999). 4. 0. Contributions of SMEs to Economic Development There is a general consensus that the performance of SMEs is important for both economic and social development of developing countries. From the economic perspective, SMEs provide a number of benefits (Advani, 1997). SMEs have been noted to be one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low-income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income in many developing countries. SMEs seem to have advantages over their large-scale competitors in that they are able to adapt more easily to market conditions, given their broadly skilled technologies. They are able to withstand adverse economic conditions because of their flexible nature (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Liedholm and Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). They perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment. Since SMEs are labour intensive, they are more likely to succeed in smaller urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to a more even distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Due to their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, it is argued, small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of scarce resources, thus facilitating long-term economic growth (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). SMEs contribute to a country’s national product by either manufacturing goods of value, or through the provision of services to both consumers and/or other enterprises. This encompasses the provision of products and, to a lesser extent, services to foreign clients, thereby contributing to overall export performance. In Ghana and South Africa, SMEs represent a vast portion of businesses. They represent about 92% of Ghanaian businesses and contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and over 80% to employment. SMEs also account for about 91% of the formal business entities in South Africa, contributing between 52% and 57% of GDP and providing about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998; Ntsika, 1999; Gumede, 2000; Berry et al. , 2002). From an economic perspective, however, enterprises are not just suppliers, but also consumers; this plays an important role if they are able to position themselves in a market with purchasing power: their demand for industrial or consumer goods will stimulate the activity of their suppliers, just as their own activity is stimulated by the demands of their clients. Demand in the form of investment plays a dual role, both from a demand-side (with regard to the suppliers of industrial goods) and on the supplyside (through the potential for new production arising from upgraded equipment). In addition, demand 224 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) is important to the income-generation potential of SMEs and their ability to stimulate the demand for both consumer and capital goods (Berry et al. , 2002). 5. 0. General Constraints to SME Development Despite the potential role of SMEs to accelerated growth and job creation in developing countries, a number of bottlenecks affect their ability to realize their full potential. SME development is hampered by a number of factors, including finance, lack of managerial skills, equipment and technology, regulatory issues, and access to international markets (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Steel and Webster, 1991; Aryeetey et al, 1994; Gockel and Akoena, 2002). The lack of managerial know-how places significant constraints on SME development. Even though SMEs tend to attract motivated managers, they can hardly compete with larger firms. The scarcity of management talent, prevalent in most countries in the region, has a magnified impact on SMEs. The lack of support services or their relatively higher unit cost can hamper SMEs’ efforts to improve their management, because consulting firms are often not equipped with appropriate cost-effective management solutions for SMEs. Besides, despite the numerous institutions providing training and advisory services, there is still a skills gap in the SME sector as a whole (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). This is because entrepreneurs cannot afford the high cost of training and advisory services while others do not see the need to upgrade their skills due to complacency. In terms of technology, SMEs often have difficulties in gaining access to appropriate technologies and information on available techniques (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). In most cases, SMEs utilize foreign technology with a scarce percentage of shared ownership or leasing. They usually acquire foreign licenses, because local patents are difficult to obtain. Regulatory constraints also pose serious challenges to SME development and although wideranging structural reforms have led to some improvements, prospects for enterprise development remain to be addressed at the firm-level. The high start-up costs for firms, including licensing and registration requirements, can impose excessive and unnecessary burdens on SMEs. The high cost of settling legal claims, and excessive delays in court proceedings adversely affect SME operations. In the case of Ghana, the cumbersome procedure for registering and commencing business are key issues often cited. The World Bank Doing Business Report (2006) indicated that it takes 127 days to deal with licensing issues and there are 16 procedures involved in licensing a business in Ghana. It takes longer (176 days) in South Africa and there were 18 procedures involved in dealing with licensing issues. Meanwhile, the absence of antitrust legislation favours larger firms, while the lack of protection for property rights limits SMEs’ access to foreign technologies (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Previously insulated from international competition, many SMEs are now faced with greater external competition and the need to expand market share. However, their limited international marketing experience, poor quality control and product standardisation, and little access to international partners, continue to impede SMEs’ expansion into international markets (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). They also lack the necessary information about foreign markets. One important problem that SMEs often face is access to capital (Lader, 1996). Lack of adequate financial resources places significant constraints on SME development. Cook and Nixson (2000) observe that, notwithstanding the recognition of the role of SMEs in the development process in many developing countries, SMEs development is always constrained by the limited availability of financial resources to meet a variety of operational and investment needs. A World Bank study found that about 90% of small enterprises surveyed stated that credit was a major constraint to new investment (Parker et al. , 1995). Levy (1993) also found that there is limited access to financial resources available to smaller enterprises compared to larger organisations and the consequences for their growth and development. The role of finance has been viewed as a critical element for the development of SMEs (Cook and Nixson, 2000). A large portion of the SME sector does not have access to adequate and appropriate forms of credit and equity, or indeed to financial services more generally (Parker et al. , 1995). In competing for the corporate market, formal financial institutions have structured their products to serve the needs of large corporates. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) 225 A cursory analysis of survey and research results of SMEs in South Africa, for instance, reveals common reactions from SME owners interviewed. When asked what they perceive as constraints in their businesses and especially in establishing or expanding their businesses, they answered that access to funds is a major constraint. This is reflected in perception questions answered by SME owners in many surveys (see BEES, 1995; Graham and Quattara, 1996; Rwingema and Karungu, 1999). This situation is not different in the case of Ghana (see Sowa et al. , 1992; Aryeetey, 1998; Bigsten et al. , 2000, Abor and Biekpe 2006, 2007; Quartey, 2002). A priori, it might seem surprising that finance should be so important. Requirements such as identifying a product and a market, acquiring any necessary property rights or licenses, and keeping proper records are all in some sense more fundamental to running a small enterprise than is finance (Green et al. , 2002). Some studies have consequently shown that a large number of small enterprises fail because of non-financial reasons. Other constraints SMEs face include: lack of access to appropriate technology; the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training (see Sowa et al. , 1992; Aryeetey et al. , 1994; Parker et al. , 1995; Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). However, potential providers of finance, whether formal or informal, are unlikely to commit funds to a business which they view as not being on a sound footing, irrespective of the exact nature of the unsoundness. Lack of funds may be the immediate reason for a business failing to start or to progress, even when the more fundamental reason lies elsewhere. Finance is said to be the â€Å"glue† that holds together all the diverse aspects involved in small business start-up and development (Green et al. , 2002). 6. 0. Conclusion This paper has reviewed various definitions of SMEs and also discussed the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to economic development, and the constraints to SME development. In reviewing the definitions of SMEs, it was concluded that there is no single, universal, uniformly acceptable definition of SMEs. Several measures or indicators have been used to define the SME sector. The most commonly used is the number of employees of the enterprise. However, in applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut-off points used by various official sources. The definitions of SMEs within the context of Ghana and South Africa were also examined, given that this paper focuses on these two countries. SMEs often fall into two categories, that is, urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into â€Å"organized† and â€Å"unorganized† enterprises. The organized groups have registered offices and paid workers, whilst the unorganized ones are mainly made up of artisans. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups and individual artisans. The activities in the SME sector range from pottery and ceramics to manufacturing of spare parts and electronic assembly. SMEs in Ghana and South Africa have a lot of similarities in terms of their characteristics as well as the vital role they play in the two economies. However, they differ in terms of size and regulation. For instance, the cut off point for the various categories of SMEs in Ghana are much lower than they pertain in South Africa. Secondly, whereas a national legislation defines an SME in South Africa, no such Act exist in Ghana. The study also observed that SMEs constitute a vital element of the development process, and their contributions in terms of production, employment and income in developing countries is widely recognized. Hence, interest in the role of SMEs in the development process continues to be high on the agenda of policy makers in the two countries. Notwithstanding the recognition, the development of SMEs is always constrained by a number of factors such as, lack of access to appropriate technology, limited access to international markets, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training. However, access to finance remains the greatest concern for the majority of SMEs. This study suggests that, to improve access to credit to SMEs, entrepreneurs should be encouraged to form cooperatives since financial institutions believe peer pressure often reduces the risk 26 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) of default, Secondly, the government through tax incentives can encourage certain training institutions and NGOs to provide training to entrepreneurs on simple record keeping and managerial know-how. Also, a national legislation in Ghana to define what constitutes an SME and their legal as we ll as tax obligations will help to integrate a number of informal enterprises into the formal framework. This should be complemented with steps to minimize the legal procedures involved in doing business in both countries. It is also suggested that technology transfer through simple, inexpensive and adaptable technology should be promoted to enhance the productivity of SMEs. References [1] [2] Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. â€Å"Small Business Financing Initiatives in Ghana†, Problems and Perspectives in Management, 4(3), pp. 69-77. Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. â€Å"SMEs’ Access to Debt Finance: A Comparison of Male-Owned and Female-Owned Businesses in Ghana†, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 7(2), pp. 105-112. Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2007. Small Business Reliance on Bank Financing in Ghana†, Emerging Market Finance Trade, 43(4), pp. 93 – 102. Acs, Z. , R. Morck, and B. Young, 1999. â€Å"Productivity Growth and Size Distribution†, in Acs, Z. , Carlsson, B. and Karlsson, C. (eds. ), Entrepreneurship, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and the Macroeconomy, Cambridge University Press. Advani, A. 1997. â€Å"Industrial Clusters: A Supp ort System for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises†, Private Sector Development, World Bank Occasional Paper No. 32, World Bank, Washigton, DC. Anheier, H. K. and H. D. Seibel, 1987. Small Scale Industries and Economic Development in Ghana†, Business Behaviour and Strategies in Informal Sector Economies, Verlag Breitenbech, Saarbruckh, Germany. Aryeetey, E. 1998. â€Å"Informal Finance for Private Sector Development in Africa†, Economic Research Papers No. 41, The African Development Bank, Abidjan. Aryeetey, E. 2001. â€Å"Priority Research Issues Relating to Regulation and Competition in Ghana†, Centre on Regulation and Competition Working Paper Series, University of Manchester, Manchester. Aryeetey, E. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, T. Duggleby, H. Hettige, and W. F. Steel, 1994. â€Å"Supply and Demand for Finance of Small Scale Enterprises in Ghana†, Discussion Paper No. 251, World Bank, Washington, DC. BEES, 1995. Guide to the Preliminary Results of the ERU / BEES SME Survey. Berry, A. , M. von Blottnitz, R. Cassim, A. Kesper, B. Rajaratnam, and D. E. van Seventer, 2002. â€Å"The Economics of SMMEs in South Africa†, Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies, Johannesburg, South Africa. Bigsten, A. , P. Collier, S. Dercon, M. Fafchamps, B. Guthier, J. W. Gunning, M. Soderbom, A. Oduro, R. Oostendorp, C. Patillo, F. Teal, A. Zeufack, 2000. Credit Constraints in Manufacturing Enterprises in Africa†, Working Paper WPS/2000. Centre for the study of African Economies, Oxford University, Oxford. Bolton, J. E. 1971. â€Å"Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Small Firms†, HMSO, London. Cook, P. and F. Nixson, 2000. â€Å"Finance and Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development†, IDPM, University of Manchester, Finance and Development Research Programme Working Paper Series, Paper No 14. CSS, 1998. â€Å"Employment and Unemployment in South Africa 1994-1997†, South Africa. Department of Trade and Industry, 2001. Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) – Definitions, http://www. dti. gov. uk/SME4/define. htm. Elaian, K. 1996. Employment Implications of Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: Evidence from Jordan, Science, Technology and Development, 14(1), pp. 80-101. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) [18] 227 [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] Falkena, H. , I. Abedian, M. Blottnitz, C. Coovadia, G. Davel, J. Madungandaba, E. Masilela, and S. Rees, S. , 2001. â€Å"SMEs’ Access to Finance in South Africa, A Supply-Side Regulatory Review†, The Task Group of the policy Board for Financial Services and Regulation, www. finance. gov. za/documents/smes. Feeney, L. S. and A. L. Riding, 1997. Business Owners’ Fundamental Tradeoff: Finance and the Vicious Circle of Growth and Control, Canadian Business Owner, November. Fisher, E. and R. Reuber, 2000. â€Å"Industrial Clusters and SME Promotion in Developing Countries†, Commonwealth Trade and Enterprise Paper No. 3. Gockel, A. G. and S. K. Akoena, 2002. Financial Intermediation for the Poor: Credit Demand by Micro, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Ghana. A Further Assignment for Financial Sector Policy? †, IFLIP Research Paper 02-6, International Labour Organisation. Graham, D. and K. Quattara, 1996. Report on Rural Finance in Two Provinces in South Africa, Prepared for the Development Bank of Southern Africa . Green, C. J. , P. Kimuyu, R. Manos, and V. Murinde, 2002. â€Å"How do Small Firms in Developing Countries Raise Capital? Evidence from a Large-Scale Survey of Kenyan Micro and Small Scale Enterprises†, Economic Research Paper No. 2/6, Centre for International, Financial and Economics Research, Department of Economics, Loughborough University. Gumede, V. 2000. â€Å"Growth and Exporting of Small and Medium Enterprises in South Africa, Some Thoughts on Policy and Scope for Further Research†, Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies, South Africa. Hassbroeck, D. 1996. â€Å"Entrepreneurship Training for the Informal Sector in South Africa, in Educating Entrepreneurs in Modernising Economies†, Aldershot, Hants: Avebury. Jordan, J. , J. Lowe, and P. Taylor, 1998. â€Å"Strategy and Financial Policy in U. K. Small Firms†, Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 25(1/2), pp. –27. Kayanula, D. and P. Quartey, 2000. â€Å"The Policy Environment for Pr omoting Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Ghana and Malawi†, Finance and Development Research Programme, Working Paper Series, Paper No 15, IDPM, University of Manchester. Lader, P. 1996. â€Å"The Public/Private Partnership†, Springs Spring, 35(2), pp. 41-44. Levy, B. , A. Berry, and J. Nugent, 1999. â€Å"Supporting the Export Activities of Small and Medium Enterprise (SME)†, in Levy, B. , Berry, A. and Nugent, J. B. (eds. ), Fulfilling the Export Potential of Small and medium Firms, Boston, MA, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Liedholm, C. and D. Mead, 1987. Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: Empirical Evidence and Policy Implications†, International Development Paper No. 9, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA. Little, I. M. , D. Mazumdar, and J. M. Page, 1987. â€Å"Small Manufacturing Enterprises: A Comparative Analysis of India and Other Economies†, New York, Oxford University Press . Lopez, G. J. and A. C. Aybar, 2000. â€Å"An Empirical Approach to the Financial Behaviour of Small and Medium Sized Companies†, Small Business Economics, 14, pp. 55-63. Michaelas, N. , F. Chittenden, and P. Poutziouris, 1999. Financial Policy and Capital Structure Choice in U. K. SMEs: Empirical Evidence from Company Panel Data†, Small Business Economics, 12, 113-130. Millinuex, A. W. 1997. â€Å"The Funding of Non-Financial Corporations (NFCs) in the EU (19711993): Evidence of Convergence†, Mimeo, Department of Economics, University of Birmingham. Ntsika, 1999. â€Å"State of Small Business in South Africa†, SARB Quarterly Bulletins; and Stats SA Releases, South Africa. OECD, 1997. Globalisation and Small and Medium Enterprises, Synthesis Report, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Osei, B. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, K. A. Tutu, and N. K. Sowa, 1993. Impact of Structural Adjustment on Small-Scale Enterprises in Ghana†, in Helmsing, A. H . J. and Kolstee, T. H. 228 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) (eds. ), Structural Adjustment, Financial Policy and Assistance Programmes in Africa, IT Publications, London. Parker, R. , R. Riopelle, and W. Steel, 1995. â€Å"Small Enterprises Adjusting to Liberalisation in Five African Countries†, World Bank Discussion Paper, No 271, African Technical Department Series, The World Bank, Washington DC. Quartey, P. 2002. â€Å"Financing Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in Ghana†, Journal of African Business, 4, pp. 7-56. Rwingema, H. and P. Karungu, 1999. â€Å"SMME Development in Johannesburg’s Southern Metropolitan Local Council: An Assessment† Development Southern Africa 16(1). Schmitz, H. 1995. â€Å"Collective Efficiency: Growth Path for Small Scale Industry†, The Journal of Development Studies, 31(4), pp. 529-566. Sowa, N. K. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, K. A. Tutu, and B. Osei, 1992. â€Å"Small Enterprise and Adj ustment, The Impact of Ghana’s Economic Recovery Programme on Small-Scale Industrial Enterprises†, Research Reports, Overseas Development Institute, 111 Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7JD. Steel, W. F. and L. M. Webster, 1991. â€Å"Small Enterprises in Ghana: Responses to Adjustment Industry†, Series Paper, No. 33, The World Bank Industry and Energy Department, Washington DC. Storey, D. , 1994. â€Å"Understanding the Small Business Sector†, Routledge, London. Teal, F. , 2002. â€Å"Background Information On Use Of Dataset: Regional Project On Enterprise Development (RPED) Ghana Manufacturing Sector Survey Waves I-V (1992-98)†, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Institute of Economics and Statistics, University of Oxford, St. Cross Building, Manor Road, Oxford, OX1 3UL. UNIDO, 1983. The Potential for Resource-based Industrial Development in the Least Developed Countries’, No. 5 Malawi. UNIDO, 1999. SMEs in Africa Survive against all Odds, http://www. unido. org/doc/view? document_id=3927language_code=en. Van der Wijst, D. , 1989. â€Å"Financial Structure in Small Business. Theory, Tests and Applications†, Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems, Vol. 320, New York: Springer-Verlag. Weston, J. F. and Copeland, T. E. , 1998. â€Å"Managerial Finance†, CBS College Publishing, New York. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49]

An Essay on Loss of Self versus Escape from Self in Suicide Essays

An Essay on Loss of Self versus Escape from Self in Suicide Essays Suicidology Online 2013; 4:16-20. ISSN 2078-5488 16 Essay An Essay on Loss of Self versus Escape from Self in Suicide: Illustrative Cases from Diaries left by those who died by Suicide David Lester The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, USA Submitted to SOL: 16th August 2012; accepted: 24th December 2013; published: 11th April 2013 Abstract: Michael Chandler (1994) has described how suicide can result from a loss of a sense of self, while Roy Baumeister (1990) has described how suicide can be an attempt to escape from the self. Their published theories are presented in a very abstract manner, and the present essay presents examples from two individuals who died by suicide who expressed these themes in their diaries. Loss of a sense of self is illustrated by the diary of an 18-year-old, and escape from self is illustrated by the diary of a professor, both of whom died by suicide. Keywords: Loss of Self, Suicide, Case Study Copyrights belong to the Author(s). Suicidology Online (SOL) is a peer-reviewed open-access journal publishing under the Creative Commons Licence 3.0. * IIIt is difficult to understand why individuals take their own life. There are risk factors and warning signs, but none of these appear to be necessary or sufficient conditions for suicide to occur. In an effort to understand suicide rather than explain it, I have been fortunate to obtain the diaries of individuals who have died by suicide. For example, in one case, I recruited colleagues to read the diary of a young woman who died by suicide and to present their insights gained from the diary (Lester, 2004). I have found that diaries provide a rich source of * David Lester, Ph.D. Distinguished Professor of Psychology The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey Galloway, NJ 08205-9441 USA Tel: +1 609-652-4254 Email: [emailprotected] information about the person that goes far beyond the brief suicide notes that some leave. The present essay was stimulated by two competing ideas, namely that suicide can result from a loss of self or as an escape from the self, and I realized that two of the diaries in my possession illustrated these two themes. The articles (by Michael Chandler [1994] and by Roy Baumeister [1990]) describing these two themes present the ideas in a very abstract manner, and the reader is left wondering how the themes manifest themselves in suicidal people. The following cases provide concrete examples of these abstract ideas. Loss of Self In a series of essays, Chandler has proposed that suicide, especially in adolescents, can occur as a result of the loss of self (Chandler, 1994; Ball & Suicidology Online 2013; 4:16-20. ISSN 2078-5488 17 Chandler, 1989; Chandler & Proulx, 2006). At the most abstract level, Chandler noted that, when selforganizing systems try to restructure themselves, typically as an upgrade to a higher and more differentiated level or organization, there can be a system failure. The individuals find themselves bereft of their previous construction of their self as persistent and continuous through time. They lose ownership of their past and any commitment to their own future. At that point, self-destructive behavior loses personal significance and becomes more available as a solution to current problems. If one is stripped of a persistent sense of identity, then one has no investment in ones future well-being. Chandler noted two tasks involved in achieving a stable sense to selfhood. First, from a cross-sectional perspective, one task is to understanding how the different competing facets of oneself that are often in conflict, are part of a unified self. Second, the sequential dimension requires that one view the current self as a development of previous selves so that one has a sense of continuity over time. Chandler described five possibilities: 1. For the pre-adolescent, the self is viewed as a figural collection of mosaic of parts, and change is discounted. The events in one life are seen as isolated, and the person turns a blind eye to change. 2. For the 12-16 year-old, the self is viewed a multifaceted topologic structure, and change is denied. There may be a good side and a bad side to the individual, or a shy side and a more forward side, but any conflict here is denied. 3. Later, the person adopts the view that there is an essential unchanging core to the self, and change is trivialized or finessed. However, this core self may be viewed as unknowable and comes to be treated as a kind of indwelling spirit or ghost in the machine (p. 382). 4. Then, functional and narrative strategies stitch together the multiple episodes of ones life (p. 382). In this functional strategy, the individual realizes that earlier events caused the present state. In the narrative strategy, the person rereads and re-edits the past in the light

Present Tense Verb Conjugations of German Regular Verbs

Present Tense Verb Conjugations of German Regular Verbs The regular German verbs follow a  predictable pattern  in the present tense. Once you learn the pattern for one regular German verb, you know how all German verbs are conjugated. Yes, there are  irregular verbs  that dont always follow the rules, but even they will usually have the same endings as the regular verbs. The majority of German verbs are regular, even though it may not seem that way since many commonly used verbs are strong (irregular) verbs. The chart below lists two sample regular German verbs. All regular German verbs will follow the same pattern. We have also included a helpful list of the more common stem-changing verbs. These are verbs that follow the normal pattern of endings, but have a vowel change in their stem or base form (hence the name stem-changing). The verb endings for each pronoun are indicated in  bold  type. The Basics Each verb has a basic infinitive (â€Å"to†) form. This is the form of the verb you find in a German dictionary. The verb â€Å"to play† in English is the infinitive form (â€Å"he playsâ€Å" is a conjugated form). The German  equivalent of â€Å"to play† is  spielen. Each verb also has a stem form, the basic part of the verb left after you remove the -en  ending. For  spielen  the stem is  spiel. To conjugate the verb- that is, use it in a sentence- you must add the correct ending to the stem. If you want to say â€Å"I play† you add an -e  ending: â€Å"ich spiele† (which can also be translated into English as â€Å"I am playing†). Each â€Å"person† (he, you, they, etc.) requires its own ending on the verb. This is called â€Å"conjugating the verb.† If you dont know how to conjugate verbs correctly it means your German will sound strange to people who understand the language. German verbs require more endings for the various â€Å"persons† than English verbs. In English we use only an  s  ending or no ending for most verbs: â€Å"I/they/we/you  play† or â€Å"he/she  plays.† German has a different ending for almost all of those verb situations:  ich spiele,  sie spielen,  du spielst,  er spielt, etc. Observe that the verb  spielen  has a different ending in most of the examples in the chart below. If you want to sound intelligent in German, you need to learn when to use which ending. Check out the chart below. Spielen / To PlayPresent Tense -  Prsens Deutsch English Sample Sentence SINGULAR ich spiele I play Ich spiele gern Basketball. du spielst you (fam.)play Spielst du Schach? (chess) er spielt he plays Er spielt mit mir. (with me) sie spielt she plays Sie spielt Karten. (cards) es spielt it plays Es spielt keine Rolle. (It doesnt matter.) PLURAL wir spielen we play Wir spielen Basketball. ihr spielt you (guys) play Spielt ihr Monoploy? sie spielen they play Sie spielen Golf. Sie spielen you play Spielen Sie heute? (Sie, formal you, is both singular and plural.) Verb Stem Ends in -d or -t Connecting -e  examplesApplies only to  du,  ihr, and  er/sie/es arbeitento work er arbeitet Arbeitest du heute? findento find du findest Findet ihr das? Also see related verb links/pages below. Now lets look at another kind of German verb, a stem-changing verb. Technically,  sprechen  (to speak) is a  strong verb, not a regular verb. But in the present tense the verb  sprechen  is regular except for a stem change from  e  to  i. That is, the verb changes its stem vowel, but the endings are the same as for any other regular verb in the present tense. Note that all stem changes only occur with the singular pronouns/person  du  and the third person singular (er,  sie,  es). The first person singular (ich) and all the plural forms do NOT change. Other stem-changing verb patterns include   a  to  Ã‚  and  e  to  ie. See the examples below.  Note that the verb endings remain normal. Sprechen/To SpeakPresent Tense -  Prsens Deutsch English Sample Sentence SINGULAR ich spreche I speak Ich spreche am Telefon. du sprichst you (fam.) speak Sprichst du am Telefon? er spricht he speaks Er spricht mit mir. (with me) sie spricht she speaks Sie spricht Italienisch. es spricht it speaks Es spricht laut. (loudly) PLURAL wir sprechen we speak Wir sprechen Deutsch. ihr sprecht you (guys) speak Sprecht ihr Englisch? sie sprechen they speak Sie sprechen Italienisch. Sie sprechen you speak Sprechen Sie Spanisch? (Sie, formal you, is both singular and plural.) Other Stem-Changing Verbs English In Use fahren drive, travel er fhrt, du fhrst geben to give es gibt, du gibst lesen to read er liest, du liest Note:  These stem-changing verbs are strong (irregular) verbs, but they have regular verb endings in the present tense.

Industry Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Industry Experience - Essay Example elopment of a management report because I have the background and knowledge in management to help a company formulate its overall strategies and goals. For example, I am aware that HRM (Human Resource Management) is one of the prime examples through which strategic management can influence what occurs within a company by a mixture of theory and pragmatic practice. It is seen by practitioners in the field as a more innovative view of workplace management than the traditional approach. Its techniques force the managers of an enterprise to express their goals with specificity so that they can be understood and undertaken by the workforce, and to provide the resources needed for them to successfully accomplish their assignments. As such, HRM techniques, when properly practiced, are expressive of the goals and operating practices of the enterprise overall. Many firms are realizing that a traditional functional organization is evermore unsuitable for the current environment in which they operate. The present time and environment demand firms to be more agile and adapt quickly to their surroundings. The best method here, firms have realized, is to develop easily deployable teams containing individuals that are fit for certain jobs and projects. The process by which a firm formulates and implements its strategy through the resources at its disposal. It can be mirrored with the actual definition of management as well in that it is devising goals and methods by which an organization is to be run, with a direction (Kono, 1996). Strategic management dwells upon where the firm currently stands, where it will be in three (short term), five (mid term) or ten (long term) years if no changes are made, whether this predicted position of the firm is acceptable, and if not, what changes will have to be made now in order to secure a position where it is envisioned to be in. Strategic management rises above the petty problems of day to day business processes to devise a direction

Compare and Contrast - Cognitive Theorists PS240 WK3 Term Paper

Compare and Contrast - Cognitive Theorists PS240 WK3 - Term Paper Example rder to understand the meaning of the aforementioned statement, one needs to first understand what theory Piaget and Vygotsky presented to the experts in the past. It was Jean Piaget who first presented the idea that a child is not capable of learning any particular activity or understanding certain thoughts unless he is matured enough to do so. His theory advocates the belief that a child matures in â€Å"spurts† and is therefore not a smooth process for the child. Therefore, a child cannot be expected to the mentally mature enough to understand a school curriculum unless his mind is mature enough to grasp the concept and explanation pertaining to his lessons. Although this theory was once formerly accepted as a basis for scheduling a school curriculum, later observations and tests have proven the inaccuracy of this theory due to the continuously evolving and now almost lighting speed grasp of understanding and maturity seen in certain children, regardless of their age. It was Lev Vygotsky who advocated the theory that a child learns more through observation, while working on a Zone of Proximal Development. His theory is that a child is never too young to understand or undertake any task provided that the young individual is supervised and accompanied by an adult during the learning process. This is a theory that is more in line with the currently observed development of the mental and motor skills of various children in different stages of childhood development. Piaget and Vygotsky both presented strong arguments for their cases. However, upon further reading and research, and based upon my own observations as well, I find that Vygotskys theory of child cognitive development is the one which is much closer to the truth in terms of child development. Although a child may have uneven maturity as Piaget pointed out, Vygostkys theory proved that the maturity or growing up process of a child can best be assisted and encouraged by the guiding hand of a caring adult

Math and architecture Essay Example for Free

Math and architecture Essay Geometry PJ Architecture and Geometry Architecture and geometry are perfect complements of each other they go hand to hand in so many ways lets discuss some of these ways. Architecture has geometry written all over it if geometry never existed Architecture wouldnt have existed either. First of all geometry is the reason that we can calculate and measure the sizes and shapes of certain structures for us to use. Geometry allows us pin point exactly how much more we may need or less , without using geometry building stuff would all be guess to what size we may need or the shape well need it in. Geometry is the primary source of all harmony in geometry. Using Pythagoreans and other formulas based off geometry is key to finding solutions to architectures problems dealing finding rite shapes and pieces to fit in a whole structure 2 by 4s things like that are all possible measurements and the reason that they are measured is because of the work from geometry. 3d shapes such as cylinders and Castles would not be able to create without the work of geometry. Also dealing with painting say if you wanted to aint a structure you would have to know how much paint you would need rite well believe it or not you will not be able to calculate exactly how much paint you will need without geometry. Also say if you wanted to know how much space you have in your structure you will have to find the volume and calculate the mass and finding the height of your structure when it all comes down to it geometry is at the root of it all all the formulas we use for calculating objects and structures rather you know it or not all comes from the works of geometry. Architecture begins with geometry Architecture needs geometry for safety issues think about it you making a rooftop without the formulas in geometry you will not be able to calculate how much you will need so imagine making the roof too small then your roof would fall down on you and possibly kill you. We use geometrical shapes to decorate our structures which is very important if you want like an appealing building or object. One more way geometry shapes architecture (literally) is the way we build our gardens we wont know how much soil or plants can fit like getting a ew piece of land you have to measure that land to know what can fit there and what cant these both are very important and wouldnt be possible to determine without geometry. See so as I basically was saying geometry shapes architecture. Architecture is possible and only directly through geometry. Creating building finding areas and volumes of structures and finding the safest and honest ways of doing them is done through geometry. The role that geometry plays in architecture is very big and I want to thank you for your time in reading this essay.

Transformation Essay -- essays research papers

America is ever changing. Over the centuries it has transformed in many ways. There has been an increase in immigrants, especially Hispanics, which has caused a transformation of both language and culture. Richard Rodriguez in his book Brown: The Last Discovery of America, and in other essays has brought his views on these matters and presents brown as a new way of describing America. Brown as color; as impurity; as language; as America. Richard Rodriguez is a writer who is artistic, and has an idealistic way of recounting things. In his essay â€Å"Late Victorians† he writes how a woman jumps off the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. He describes it as â€Å"†¦before she stepped onto the sky. To land like a spilled purse at my feet,† (Encounters, 496) He compares the woman hitting the ground as a â€Å"spilled purse.† When you think of a spilled purse you don’t think of tragedy, so his comparing this insignificant incident of a purse hitting the ground to the death of a woman catches you off guard. Rodriquez says it in such a tranquil manner that the tragedy seems to be unrealistic. He again shows romanticism somewhere else in the essay: On a Sunday in summer, ten years ago, I was walking home from the Latin mass at Saint Patrick’s, the old Irish parish downtown, when I saw thousands of people on Market Street. It was San Francisco’s Gay Freedom Day parade-not marching backs. There were floats. Banners blocked single lives thematically into a processional mass, not unlike the consortiums of the blessed in Renaissance painting, each saint cherishing the apparatus of his martyrdom. (493) Rodriguez’s comparing the parade with religious allusions makes it more glorious. He compares the parade of floats and banners to a â€Å"processional mass.† He satirically portrays gays as saints just as he is coming from church, which considers homosexuality as a sin. He is basically beautifying the parade. He romanticizes to capture your attention and to bring you into his world. He wants you to see things as he sees them. He wants to â€Å"defy anyone who†¦say[s] what is appropriate to my voice† (Brown, xi).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rodriguez, in his essay â€Å"Peter’s Avocado,† expresses â€Å"[b] rown as impurity,† (Brown, 194). This brown is not brown as color but as something â€Å"mixed, confused, lumped, impure, unpasteurized, as motives are mixed†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (â€Å"Peter’s Avocado†, 197). However, brown can be... ...of the United States not for the battles and politics, but for the transformation and complexity of language that occurred through the centuries. â€Å"I eulogize a literature that is suffused with brown, with allusion, irony, paradox-ha! -pleasure,† (Preface, xi). With disconnected allusions, metaphors, and unrealism Rodriguez not only conveys his ideas throughout his essays but also is able to show us part of himself as a writer. He respects people’s role in society. He treasures how assimilation can change a culture. He has a passion for brown for converting color and race. He loves language for it’s continuous changes that it has been through over time. He values transformation, whether it is of color, culture, language, or a nation. Work Cited: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rodriguez, Richard. â€Å"Late Victorians,† and â€Å"The Achievement of Desire.† Encounters: Essays for Exploration and Inquiry. 2nd ed. Ed. Pat C. Hoy II and Robert DiYanni. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. 475-492, 493-505 ----. â€Å"The Triad of Alexis de Tocqueville,† â€Å"In the Brown Study,† â€Å"The Prince and I,† â€Å"Peter’s Avocado,† and â€Å"Hispanic.† Brown: The Last Discovery of America. New York: Penguin Putnam Inc, 2002.

Random Sampling Techniques

There are many ways to select a random sample. Four of them are discussed below: Simple Random Sampling: In this sampling technique, each sample of the same size has the same probability of being selected. Such a sample is called a simple random sample. One way to select a simple random sample is by a lottery or drawing. For example, if we need to select 5 students from a class of 50, we write each of the 50 names on a separate piece of paper. Then, we place all 50 names in a hat and mix them thoroughly.Next, we draw 1 name randomly from the hat. We repeat this experiment four more times. The 5 drawn names make up a simple random sample. The second procedure to select a simple random sample is to use a table of random numbers, which has become an outdated procedure. In this age of technology, it is much easier to use a statistical package, such as Minitab, to select a simple random sample. Systematic Random Sampling: The simple random sampling procedure becomes very tedious if the si ze of the population is large.For example, if we need to select 150 households from a list of 45,000, it is very time consuming either to write the 45,000 names on pieces of paper or then select 150 households or to use a table of random numbers. In such cases, it is more convenient to use systematic random sampling. Stratified Random Sampling: Suppose we need to select a sample from the population of a city, and we want households with different income levels to be proportionately represented in the sample.In this case, instead of selecting a simple random sample or a systematic random sample, we may prefer to apply a different technique. First, we divide the whole population into different groups based on income levels. Thus, whenever we observe that a population differs widely in the possession of a characteristic, we may prefer to divide it into different strata and then select one sample from each stratum. We can divide the population on the basis of any characteristic, such as income, expenditure, sex, education, race, employment, or family size.Cluster Sampling: Sometimes the target population is scattered over a wide geographical area. Consequently, if a simple random sample is selected, it may be costly to contact each member of the sample. In such a case, we divide the population into different geographical groups or clusters and as a first step select a random sample of certain clusters from all clusters. We then take a random sample of certain elements from each selected cluster. For example, suppose we are to conduct a survey of households in the state f New York. First, we divide the whole state of New York into, say, 40 regions, which are called clusters or primary units. We make sure that all clusters are similar and, hence, representative of the population. We then select at random, say, 5 clusters from 40. Next, we randomly select certain households from each of these 5 clusters and conduct a survey of these selected households. This is calle d cluster sampling. Note that all clusters must be representative of the population. Random Sampling Techniques There are many ways to select a random sample. Four of them are discussed below: Simple Random Sampling: In this sampling technique, each sample of the same size has the same probability of being selected. Such a sample is called a simple random sample. One way to select a simple random sample is by a lottery or drawing. For example, if we need to select 5 students from a class of 50, we write each of the 50 names on a separate piece of paper. Then, we place all 50 names in a hat and mix them thoroughly.Next, we draw 1 name randomly from the hat. We repeat this experiment four more times. The 5 drawn names make up a simple random sample. The second procedure to select a simple random sample is to use a table of random numbers, which has become an outdated procedure. In this age of technology, it is much easier to use a statistical package, such as Minitab, to select a simple random sample. Systematic Random Sampling: The simple random sampling procedure becomes very tedious if the si ze of the population is large.For example, if we need to select 150 households from a list of 45,000, it is very time consuming either to write the 45,000 names on pieces of paper or then select 150 households or to use a table of random numbers. In such cases, it is more convenient to use systematic random sampling. Stratified Random Sampling: Suppose we need to select a sample from the population of a city, and we want households with different income levels to be proportionately represented in the sample.In this case, instead of selecting a simple random sample or a systematic random sample, we may prefer to apply a different technique. First, we divide the whole population into different groups based on income levels. Thus, whenever we observe that a population differs widely in the possession of a characteristic, we may prefer to divide it into different strata and then select one sample from each stratum. We can divide the population on the basis of any characteristic, such as income, expenditure, sex, education, race, employment, or family size.Cluster Sampling: Sometimes the target population is scattered over a wide geographical area. Consequently, if a simple random sample is selected, it may be costly to contact each member of the sample. In such a case, we divide the population into different geographical groups or clusters and as a first step select a random sample of certain clusters from all clusters. We then take a random sample of certain elements from each selected cluster. For example, suppose we are to conduct a survey of households in the state f New York. First, we divide the whole state of New York into, say, 40 regions, which are called clusters or primary units. We make sure that all clusters are similar and, hence, representative of the population. We then select at random, say, 5 clusters from 40. Next, we randomly select certain households from each of these 5 clusters and conduct a survey of these selected households. This is calle d cluster sampling. Note that all clusters must be representative of the population.

Project Manager Essay

The main communication method they use is the telephone. This is because it is handy and convenient to use, and it is also fast. They use telephone for various reasons such as to arrange an appointment, to confirm orders, to book activities etc. The alternative method instead of using the telephone could be e-mail and letter, this way they can keep the letter for hard copy and evidence to confirm that they did arrange the appointment if there are any complications. The Fax machine is quite useful because it is fast and the letter can be kept for hard copy so there will be no need to type up any information. A meeting saves quite a lot of time and they get feedback from people immediately. Some information may be confidential so a certain method may need to be used such as face to face or letter, this way no confidential information is being leaked. There are different types of communication used because they need to know which type of communication to use for each purpose for example if it’s confidential they can either use telephone or letter so that no confidential information is being released out. And also if letter or email is being used, this can be kept for future reference and hard evidence for any purpose. Although there are some disadvantages of using the alternative methods, this is due to the confidentiality of information handling. Some information needs to remain or private in a company so a certain method has to be used. How information is collected, processed and stored All administrative staff play a key role in: Collecting information: whether it arrives in the mail, electronically, by telephone or is passed on by word of mouth. Processing information: inputting it, merging it with other information, sorting it, reorganising it, reproducing it or updating current records. Storing information: in filing systems and on computer. The main aspect of a storage system is so you can find things quickly and the items stored are kept in good condition. Information is processed when it is changed or converted in some way. It may be improved or may be prepared for a particular use such as notes from meetings, messages from telephones, sales figures that need to be input into a spreadsheet etc. These roles are important to the Business because it depends how well information has been organised and stored so that it can easily be accessed when it is needed. Every day, Businesses receive a vast amount of paperwork that is generated by organisations such as forms, fax messages, telephone messages, letters, memos reports and many more. So the administrative staff is responsible for the storage, processing and collecting these information in order to keep the constant flow of the Business going. Post arrives at the reception and then is sorted and stored separately by name in a little locker by the reception assistant, each locker is provided with a key so the administration assistant or the manager has to collect their post from their locker. After all the post is bought back to the department to be opened and read, they also have to do certain things such as processing and storing the type of information. For example: When they receive an invoice for the art and crafts equipment, the amount is processed onto spreadsheet on the computer by the administration assistant. This is because they need to record how much money is spent using the company’s money. Then the assistant writes a number on top of the invoice to help keep all the invoices in order which is then kept in a box file then stacked on the shelf. When the cheque is made out, the same number as the invoice is also written on the top of the cheque so they know they match. Records of the young people who join the community are kept on a CD Rom. Their details are also kept in a lever arch file and are updated if any changes have been made. The lever arch file is then stacked on the shelf along with some other files. When an application form is received, it is read by the manager and details of that person are noted down and then the form is filed in a vertical filing cabinet. If the manager approves one or two forms, he then photocopies them and then the original copy is filed and the other is sent to the director. All other information such as catalogues and booklets from the suppliers of office organisations are stored in a tall cardboard box file and is kept on the shelf. Decision making Decisions are made every day within businesses. The Board of Directors makes the major decisions at GAZ and the Project Manager makes the simple decisions such as what equipment to buy.

buy custom Overly Dependent on Technology essay

buy custom Overly Dependent on Technology essay Introduction The wave of technology has caused the society to become more dependent on it, especially in 21st century. This is because of the manner in which technology has proved to be very effective as well as facilitating the ease of doing things. Technology ranges from the time of agrarian revolution, then came industrialization to now the famous information society. During agrarian revolution, technology was very essential for instance for tilling land and also lighting fire which was used as a form of energy during those times (Ambrose, 2001). Again, during industrialization, technology also proved to be useful in substituting manpower and using machines to do the same jobs which were initially done by human being. The same jobs which were done by human being could now be done using machines and as a result could be finished faster and effectively. Today, people are living in a society which is dominated by information. This is referred to as information society and people are said to live in a digital age. This essay aims to discuss the extent to which people have become dependent on their day to day activities including how organizations make use of technology in an attempt of competitive edge. For the sake of the reader of this essay , it is worth giving a brief introduction regarding what technology is all about. Many people do refer technology as only those aspect which are related to computers as well as the current trends of telecommunication. However, technology has different meaning to different people (Thomson, 2009). It is worth mentioning that the perspective to which people refer technology is different and therefore emerges that it is of essence to define technology as far as this essay is concerned. Technology can be defined as the process whereby nature is modified by human beings in an attempts of achieving their needs. The fact that the needs which would make human being more comfortable as well as the aspects which would be considered to improve the living standards of human beings continue to increase or rather to emerge, necessitates the need to come up with new inventions. It therefore emerges that technology will continue to evlve as these needs arise. It can be said that technology is as a result of engineering as well as science (McGinn, 1991). Whereas engineering deals with the design of the technology in question, science on the other hand deals with the condition as well as features under which the designs in question should operate. The discussion now embanks on the dependency of technology by people. Discussion Technology civilized society refers to the current generation which is using knowledge and information for economic gains. This means that almost every thing which is done by people depends on this technology (Ambrose, 2001).The reason being that, such information can only be received processed and stored in such devices which are developed as result of technology. This means that for instance if the current generation was to live without technology, it would turn out to be unrealistic and as such, there are some of the activities with are significant in as far as day to day operations are concerned which cannot be realized without technology. An example of this include mobile telephones meant for communication or computers in the office meant for processing information. This gives a clear indication that the society nowadays depends on technology to execute their day to day activities which might turn out to be unrealistic in the event that technology is not accessible (McGinn, 1991 ). Another example is in case of food in the homes of individuals, food is preserved using refrigerators. This means that in the event that refrigerators are not functioning, the food in homes of individuals would end up going bad after sometimes especially perishable goods or rather food. It therefore emerges that people turned to technology to increase the shelf life of food. Again microwaves have proved to be useful in as far as warming of food is concerned .Food preparation time has significantly been condensed as a result of use of new equipments as well as machines(Noble, 1984). This results in saving time which can be used in doing otheer productive work. This is what makes people to depend on technology as it saves valuable time. Computers and related gargets such as laptops, palmtops, mobile telephones just to mention but a few have enabled people to communicate in real time regardless of geographical location as well time. Asynchronous and synchronous communication has been made easy due to the invention of world wide web which apparently makes the world to appear as a small village. This has facilitated globalization due to the ease of communication as well as that one of doing business as business people can get market for their products internationally. This means that sudden lack of these devices which have eased the way people communicate can cause a lot of inconveniencies to many people hence people have become dependent on technology(McGinn, 1991). The other area which has made people become more dependent on technology is tele-working which is also referred to as telecommuting. This is a situation whereby people or rather employees work at the comfort of their home and then send their completed assignments to their employers. A good example includes freelancers who work remotely. This means that technology has facilitated a level ground which enables people regardless of the time and geographical location to have equal opportunities of accessing jobs(Ambrose, 2001). This means that in absence of technology some of the people who depend on it can be left jobless. Conclusion This discussion shows that people have become dependent on technology in all spheres of life ranging from communication to other home-based core activities such as cooking and preserving food. Although technology has proved to be very useful in as far as the life of the current society is concerned, there are also some aspects of technology which prove to be negative in the society (Noble, 1984). This includes interference of work with family matters as people carry office work to their home and continue working at home in prevalence of involving themselves with family matters. Buy custom Overly Dependent on Technology essay

Using Mademoiselle and Miss in French

Using Mademoiselle and Miss in French The French courtesy title mademoiselle (pronounced mad-moi-zell) is a traditional way of  addressing young and unmarried women. But this form of address,  literally translated as my young lady, is also considered sexist by some people, and in recent years the French government has banned its use in official documents. Despite this sentiment, some still use  mademoiselle  in conversation, especially in formal situations or among older speakers. Usage There are three honorifics commonly used in French, and they function much the way Mr., Mrs., and Miss do in American English. Men of all ages, married or single, are addressed as monsieur. Married women are addressed as madame, as are older women. Young and unmarried women are addressed as  mademoiselle.  As in English, these titles are capitalized when used in conjunction with a persons name. They are also capitalized when functioning as proper pronouns in French and can be abbreviated: Monsieur M.Madame Mme.Mademoiselle Mlle Unlike English, where the honorific Ms. can be used to address women regardless of age or marital status, there is no equivalent in French. Today, youll still hear  mademoiselle  being used, though usually by older French speakers for whom the term is still traditional. It is also occasionally used in formal situations. Most younger French speakers do not use the term, particularly in large cities like Paris. Guidebooks sometimes advise visitors to avoid using the term as well. Instead, use  monsieur  and  madame  in all cases. Controversy In 2012  the French government officially banned the use of mademoiselle for  all government documents. Instead,  madame  would be used for women of any age and marital status. Likewise, the terms  nom de jeune fille  (maiden name) and  nom dà ©pouse  (married name) would be replaced by  nom de famille  and  nom dusage, respectively.   This move wasnt entirely unexpected. The French government had considered doing the same thing back in 1967 and again in 1974. In 1986 a law was passed allowing married women and men to use the legal name of their choice on official documents. And in 2008 the city of Rennes eliminated the use of  mademoiselle  on all official paperwork. Four years later, the campaign to make this change official on a national level had gained momentum. Two  feminist groups, Osez le fà ©minisme! (Dare to be feminist!) and Les Chiennes de Garde (The watchdogs), lobbied the government for months and are credited with persuading Prime Minister Franà §ois Fillon to support the cause. On Feb. 21, 2012, Fillon issued an official decree banning the word. Sources Darrieussecq, Marie. Madame, Mademoiselle: In  France These Are About Sex, not Respect. TheGuardian.com, 24 February 2012.Samuel, Henry. Mademoiselle Banned on Official French Forms. Telegraph.co.uk, 22 February 2012.Sayre, Scott. ‘Mademoiselle’ Exits Official France. NYTimes.com, 22 February 2012.

Louis Vuitton (LV) in Japan Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Louis Vuitton (LV) in Japan - Case Study Example All that is required is for Louis Vuitton is to market its products and the customers will naturally come. 2) There are many challenges that Louis Vuitton face in trying to capture a significant portion of the Japanese luxury goods market. Other brands such as Bulgari, Baccarat, Burberry, the Gucci Group, and Salvatore Ferragamo are all trying to get a foothold in the Japanese luxury goods market. In addition to these already established brands, there are always new brands entering the market all the time. One such new entrant was the Swedish brand H&M, which entered the Japanese market in 2008. On the other hand though, Louis Vuitton is well-placed to thrive in the Japanese market because quality is a key factor that the Japanese consumers place emphasis on. Quality is something that Louis Vuitton has much experience in. This is one marketing strategy that may prove to be successful in the Japanese market. 3) Originally, Louis Vuitton was the first foreign luxury brand to enter the Japanese market, and it did so with the need for a Japanese partner. Louis Vuitton decided to open its own subsidiary in Japan, which was something that was unheard of before Louis Vuitton pioneered the concept. The company delegated authority to each individual Japanese store, and gave its Japanese managers control of marketing strategies because they knew the local culture best. However, in 2003, Louis Vuitton decided to change its marketing strategy in order to stay ahead of its competitors. To do this, Louis Vuitton collaborated with a Japanese artist, Takashi Murakami. He designed that year’s spring and summer collection and, as a result, Louis Vuitton’s profits increased by 10 percent. 4) At the beginning of the global financial crisis, it seemed that Louis Vuitton’s sales in Japanese may decrease because of limited spending on the part of consumers. In addition to this, Louis Vuitton’s products are